Definition and Classification of the Term

Chapter II — The Idea Expressed

This Chapter studies the idea as exteriorly expressed by the term. The term is defined and classified, and then viewed in its use in the expression of ideas.

The Chapter is accordingly divided into the following Articles:

• Article 1. Definition and Classification of the Term
• Article 2. The Use of the Term

Article 1. Definition and Classification of the Term

a) Definition    b) Classification

a) Definition of the Term

A term is a sensible, arbitrary sign which manifests an idea and the reality which that idea represents in the mind.

1. A term is a sensible, arbitrary sign. A sign is anything that gives knowledge of something other than itself. Thus smoke is a sign of fire; a red flag is the sign of danger; a portrait is a sign of the person it represents. A sign gives knowledge of something other than itself, and this is called the thing signified. We distinguish various types or kinds of signs:

i. If the sign resembles the thing signified, it is a formal sign. Otherwise it is an instrumental sign. A portrait is a formal sign of the person represented; smoke is an instrumental sign of fire.

ii. If there is a connection or relation based on the nature of things between an instrumental sign and the thing signified, the instrumental sign is called natural; otherwise it is arbitrary (or conventional). Smoke is a natural instrumental sign of fire; a red flag is an arbitrary instrumental sign of danger.

A term must be a sensible sign, that is, it must be perceivable by one or more of the senses. A sign perceivable by the sense of hearing is an audible sign. Such a sign may manifest an emotion (such as pleasure, pain, surprise); thus laughter, sobbing, a groan, a sigh, a gasp, are audible signs of emotion. Again, an audible sign may manifest an idea, and then it is an oral term. An oral term is a word or group of words expressing, through articulate sounds of the voice, an idea and the reality which that idea represents in the mind. Notice that an oral term is a word or group of words. Single words that can manifest ideas are called categorematic words. Every categorematic word is a term. Words that must be grouped with others to express an idea are called syncategorematic words; and such words, taken by themselves, are never terms. Examples of categorematic words: house, home, hill, beauty, truth. Examples of syncategorematic words: of, because, very, etc. (prepositions, articles, adverbs, interjections).

A sign perceivable by the sense of sight is a visible sign. Such a sign may manifest an emotion (pleasure, pain, surprise); thus a start, trembling, pallor, flushed cheeks, etc., are visible signs of emotion. Again, a visible sign may manifest an idea, and then it is either a gesticular term (as in the finger-language of the deaf and mute) or a written term.

2. A term manifests an idea. As we have just seen, there are signs which manifest emotion; these are not terms; nor are any signs that manifest mere qualities or affective states called terms. Thus a devout attitude is a sign of attentive prayerfulness, but it is not a term. Thus the teeth of an animal and the compact consistency of a bit of beef are (each in its own way) signs of age; but these things are not terms. A term to justify its name must manifest _an idea+.

3. A term manifests an idea and the reality which that idea represents in the mind. In other words, a term manifests an idea and the thing, the object, of which the idea is an essential representation. The term sun, for example, does not merely manifest the presence of the idea sun in the mind of the speaker; it also expresses (that is, conveys to the attention and knowledge of the hearer) the heavenly body, the objective sun; and this is its first and direct function.

It is to be noticed here that while terms serve us most notably in conveying ideas to other minds, they also serve us in expressing ideas to ourselves. A little reflection will convince anyone that a man does his thinking in, or to the accompaniment of, a kind of internal speech. One cannot express ideas clearly to others unless one has expressed these ideas with clearness to oneself.

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b) Classification of the Term

Terms are classified according to three aspects which their study presents to consideration, viz.:

1. the exactness with which they manifest ideas;
2. the Comprehension of the idea expressed (called also the Comprehension of the Term); and
3. the Extension of the idea expressed (called also the Extension of the Term).

1. Exactness

A term used throughout a given context in precisely the same sense is called univocal. If a term be used in two or more utterly different senses in the same context, it is called equivocal. If a term be used in different but related senses, so that its use is not identical nor yet entirely different in any two instances in the same context, the term is called analogous, and between the uses analogy is said to exist.

To illustrate: In the sentence, “Man is mortal, man must die,” the term man is univocal. In the sentence, “There is a bank (that is, savings bank) on the bank of the stream,” the term bank is equivocal. In the sentence, “O cruel slave, O cruel sword, that wrought so foul a death!” the term cruel is analogous.

Analogy may also occur when only one term is used, its sense being metaphorical and therefore related to the normal and natural and ordinary sense of the same term. Thus there is analogy in the expression, “O cruel spear that pierced the Saviour’s side!” The term cruel is used in a figurative or metaphorical sense, the cruelty of the user of the spear being thus attributed to the weapon itself. We distinguish two kinds of analogy:

i. Analogy of Proportion. When the relation between the normal and ordinary sense of a term and its figurative or metaphorical sense is based on likeness or resemblance, the analogy is one of proportion. Thus the term “smiling meadowlands” contains an analogy of proportion: for there is a conceivable resemblance between a smiling human face and bright sunlight on green fields. Other examples of this analogy: “frowning skies,” “the running sea,” “the rude, imperious surge.”

ii. Analogy of Attribution. When the relation between the proper and ordinary sense of a term and the figurative sense of it is based on something other than likeness or resemblance, the analogy is one of attribution. Thus the term “cruel spear” involves an analogy of attribution; for cruelty, which, in proper sense, can only be attributed to a person, is here attributed to a weapon which a person can use; and there is no relation of resemblance here, but one of instrumentality — that is, the spear serves as the instrument of cruelty. Another example of such analogy is the term “a healthy climate.”

2. Comprehension

Terms are divided under this head into positive, negative, and privative terms; into simple and complex terms; and into concrete and abstract terms.

A positive term expresses a thing, an affirmation; a negative term expresses the absence of a thing; a negative term becomes privative when it denotes the absence of a perfection that ought to be present.

Examples: positive terms — man, game, wealth, love of God, loyalty to the country’s cause; negative terms — non-living, the not-self, unmindfulness, indisposition, immensity, infinity; privative terms — ignorance (in one who could and should know), blindness (in one who could and should have the perfection of sight).

Notice carefully that negative terms denote the absence of something, whether this be a perfection or an imperfection. Thus infinity denotes the absence of limitation; the term expresses the greatest perfection thinkable; and yet it is a negative term. Another negative term is immensity; it denotes perfection by denying limitation or measurability, but it is still a negative term. Thus it will be seen that terms are positive or negative by reason of their form or make-up; if they have a negative or privative particle as prefix (such as in-, un-, non-, il-, im-, etc.) or suffix (like -lessness) they are negative terms.

A simple term consists of a single word; a complex term has more than one word. Examples: simple terms — man, brother, humanity, blindness; complex terms — love of God, a sin against Faith, the President of these United States, something of importance.

A complex term always has a principal member and an incidental member, the former expressing the leading idea, and the latter qualifying that idea. Thus in the complex term, “The love of God,” the principal member is “love,” and the incidental member is the adjective phrase “of God.” Again, in the term, “The books on your table,” the principal member is “books,” and the incidental member is “on your table.” It is important to learn this matter well, for we shall recur to it presently.

A concrete term expresses a concrete idea. Examples: man, wood, animal, wise and prudent leader. An abstract term expresses an abstract idea. Examples: humanity, woodiness, animality, wisdom, prudence, leadership.

3. Extension

Terms are divided under this head into singular, universal, indefinite, particular, and collective terms, according as they express ideas of the same names.

• Examples of singular terms: this circle, my father, Alfred E. Smith.
• Examples of universal terms: all circles, every father, each candidate.
• Examples of indefinite terms (that is, of terms in which there is no word to indicate the scope of their extension): circles, fathers, candidates.
• Examples of particular terms: some circles, many fathers, several candidates.
• Examples of collective terms (that is, of terms expressing “groups.” These terms are singular, universal, particular, or indefinite): this family; all juries; some armies; committee, delegation, crowd.

A singular term is proper or common according as it is a singular and individual name or a general name limited to an individual by a restrictive particle. Thus the following singular terms are proper: Al Smith, St. Charles College, Nevada. The following singular terms are common: this candidate, one college, that state.

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Summary of the Article

In this Article we have studied the term as the expression of an idea and the reality represented by the idea. We have learned that the term is the sign of an idea. We have distinguished signs as formal and instrumental, and the latter we have sub­divided into natural and arbitrary signs. We have discussed signs as audible and visible, and terms as oral, gesticular, and written.

In classifying terms we have listed them as univocal, equivocal, and analogous. We have studied analogy, and have learned what is meant by “analogy of proportion” and “analogy of attribution.” We have learned the following further classification of terms: positive, negative, privative, simple, complex, concrete, abstract, singular, universal, indefinite, particular, collective. Singular terms we have distinguished as proper and common.